Kanatlı hayvan işletmelerinde antibiyotik kullanımının azaltılması -hatta önlenmesi- son yıllarda oldukça önemli bir konu haline geldi. Tüketicilerin bu konudaki talepleri artmaya devam ediyor ve et üretiminde antibiyotik kullanımına ilişkin görüşler gıda kaygıları listesinde en üst sıralarda yer alıyor. Kanatlı üretiminde belli koşullarda antibiyotik kullanımı genel olarak kabul edilebilir olmakla birlikte, bugünün piyasasında rekabet edebilmek için alternatif uygulamaları göz önünde bulundurmak gerekiyor.

Bakteriyel direnç

Antibiyotiklere karşı bakteri direncinin gittikçe artması, resmi otoritelerin hayvan yeminde antibiyotikler hakkında daha sert kurallar getirmesine yol açtı. Çünkü bu konudaki en büyük endişe, ette antibiyotik kalıntısına rastlanabilmesi ve muhtemelen gıda tüketimi yoluyla insanlara aktarılabilmesiydi.

Birleşmiş Milletler Gıda ve Tarım Örgütü (FAO), antimikrobiyal direncin dünya çapında yılda 700.000 insanın ölümüne neden olduğunu tahmin ediyor. Antibiyotiklerin geniş çapta kullanımı bu sayıyı önemli ölçüde arttırabilir ve 2050'ye kadar 10 milyon insanın ölümüne yol açabilir. Dünya Sağlık Örgütü (WHO) de, bu konudaki benzer endişelerini dile getiriyor ve tedbir alınmadığı takdirde antibiyotiklerin 2050 yılında kanserden daha ölümcül olabileceğini belirtiyor.

Pazarlanabilirlik

Çok uluslu süpermarketlerin ve fast-food zincirlerinin antibiyotik içermeyen ürünler talep etmeye başladığı Avrupa gibi pazarlarda, üreticilerin etlerini başarıyla satmaya ya da ihraç etmeye devam edebilmeleri için etteki antibiyotik kalıntılarıyla ilgili endişelerin her zamankinden daha fazla bilincinde olmaları gerekiyor.

Hayvan beslenmesinde performans arttırıcı antibiyotik kullanımı, 2006'dan bu yana Avrupa Birliği (AB) ülkelerinde yasaklanmıştır. Ayrıca, AB'nin diğer önemli pazarlarla ilişkisi olduğu için, rasyonlarında antibiyotik bulunan hayvanlardan elde edilen gıda ürünlerinin tüketimi de kısıtlanmıştır.

Antibiyotiksiz çözümler

Başlarda, üreticilerin işletmelerini yeni bir rasyona uyarlamaları zorlu olabilir. Bunun sorunsuz bir geçiş olmasını sağlamak için işletmenizin envanterini değerlendirerek yeni teknolojileri ya da gerekli ekipmanları hangi alanlara entegre edebileceğinizi belirleyebilirsiniz. Ayrıca, tavuklarınızı sağlıklı tutacak ve antibiyotik ihtiyacını azaltacak etkili ve kaliteli bir aşılama programı uygulayabilirsiniz.

Tavukların rasyonunda ilgili değişiklikleri yapmadan önce, rasyon ve aşılama programı ile birlikte su ve hava kalitesi gibi çevresel faktörleri de değerlendirmek, işletmeyle ilgili herhangi bir hijyen sorunu ile karşılaşmamak için teknik bir beslenme uzmanına danışmak önemlidir.

Araştırmacıların, kümes hayvanı işletmelerinin kalitesini ve verimliliğini korurken insan sağlığına zarar vermeyen çözümler bulmak konusundaki özenli çalışmaları antibiyotiklere karşı doğal alternatiflerin keşfini sağlamıştır. Dünyanın dört bir yanındaki şirketler ve üniversiteler, antibiyotik kullanımına alternatif olarak çeşitli doğal çözümleri araştırmak amacıyla işbirliği yapmaya devam etmektedir.

Tavukların rasyonlarına potansiyel olarak katılabilecek üç doğal alternatif probiyotikler, prebiyotikler ve organik minerallerdir. Probiyotikler bağırsakları sağlıklı tutan ve kanatlıların gelişimini destekleyen faydalı mikroorganizmalardır. Prebiyotikler, hayvanın bağırsağında zararlı bakteri üremesini önler. Tüm hayvanların sağlıklı gelişimi için ise organik mineraller mutlaka gereklidir.

Alltech tarafından yapılan son bir araştırmada iki tavuk grubu analiz edildi: Birinci grupta antibiyotikli rasyon, ikinci grupta ise doğal ve maya bazlı çözümleri içeren antibiyotiksiz bir rasyonla besleme yapıldı. Sonuçlar, her bir gruptaki sürünün sağlığının karşılaştırılabilir (benzer) olduğunu göstermiştir. Daha da önemlisi, antimikrobiyal verilmeyen ikinci gruptaki tavuklar ağırlıkta önemli bir artış, bağırsak fonksiyonlarında iyileşme ve daha düşük bir ölüm oranı göstermiştir.

Hayvan beslemesinde antibiyotik içermeyen ürünlerin ve yem tercihinin sadece bir pazar trendi olmadığı, günlük hayatta çok daha fazla yer almaya başlayan kaçınılmaz bir değişim olduğu açıkça görülüyor. Üreticilerin bu yeni gerçeğe adapte olması protein endüstrisinde rekabetçi kalabilmelerine yardımcı olacaktır. Üreticilerin doğal alternatifler kullanarak antibiyotik kullanımını azaltması, ürün kalitesini arttırması, sürü sağlığı ve verimini koruması mümkün olabilmektedir.

Diarrhea in pigs has always been a challenge for the swine industry. When combined with a move to a new facility, the stress of weaning can often trigger an enteric challenge in the nursery. When considering the causes of diarrhea in piglets and newly weaned pigs, focus on these three areas: sanitation, pathogen control and proper nutrition.

1. Sanitation

Freshly weaned pigs have just experienced an incredibly stressful change, and that stress can be highly detrimental for their already immature immune systems. On top of this, any maternal antibodies that were conveyed to the pig from the sow will be waning within the first two weeks of placement, thereby elevating their risk from any exposure to environmental pathogens. Effective power-washing must be completed between every group entering the facility — especially if previous groups have faced a challenge. De-greasers and/or hot water will be a great help at eliminating any biofilm on floor and feeder surfaces, which cold water alone may not be able to remove. A post-washing inspection is also helpful, as spaces in the floor, under the lip of the feeder or underneath water bowls are commonly missed — and these areas can all harbor enough pathogens to make a weaned pig sick.

Once the pens have been sufficiently cleaned, it is important to also select a disinfectant that will effectively eliminate the pathogens present in the facility. There are several product options on the market, all of which have their pros and cons. Select one based on its coverage, the time needed to take effect and its ease of application. For example, some disinfectants must be fully dry to achieve their maximum effect, while others work directly on or shortly after contact. Some disinfectants even have residual action after they have fully dried. It is important to ensure that you are using the correct dosage for the product to complete proper disinfection. The Center for Food Security and Public Health at Iowa State University is a great resource for obtaining a better understanding of disinfectants.

Water lines are often a frequently overlooked area of the barn in need of proper sanitation. It is a good practice to evaluate the water quality in the facility. Oftentimes, water lines are full of biofilm that harbors bacteria that can be carried from group to group, meaning that a newly weaned pig’s first drink could be full of stagnant water potentially laden with bacteria. A good practice is to purge the lines with a chlorination or peroxide product between groups — but keep in mind that this could break sediment free within the lines and potentially cause plugging. There are also safe options that can be completed when an active group is present, allowing for continual flushing of the lines while the pigs are consuming water.

2. Pathogen control

Of course, other equipment in the facility could also be responsible for the presence of pathogens. To avoid tracking in pathogens from the outside world, boots should be thoroughly cleaned and disinfected before workers enter the rooms of newly weaned pigs. Gruel feeders and bowls should also be thoroughly cleaned and disinfected between groups. Mats are a great way to start pigs on solid feed, but if the mats are aging and fraying significantly, they can be difficult to disinfect effectively, making them a haven for disease. Feed carts, scoops, coveralls, hoses and even hats are examples of other items that could potentially harbor disease. Wooden surfaces are almost impossible to disinfect sufficiently and should be painted with latex paint to seal off any potential hiding spots for bacteria and coccidia.

Next, make sure you have a full understanding of the pathogens present in the facility that are contributing to the presence of diarrhea. There are three main categories of gut bugs: bacterial, viral and parasitic.

Parasitic organisms can include coccidia, roundworms and whipworms. Coccidia are an uncommon cause of disease in weaned pigs, and sanitation of both the source farm and destination farms should be evaluated if this is a primary challenge. Round- and whipworm infections take some time to develop in a group and are very rare in newly weaned pigs. A proper deworming protocol will need to be put in place if these are identified as the source of the challenge.

Some examples of viral pathogens that can cause diarrhea in weaned pigs include porcine epidemic diarrhea (PED), transmissible gastroenteritis (TGE), rotavirus types A, B and C, and even porcine respiratory and reproductive syndrome (PRRS). Viral infections cannot be treated with antibiotics, so therapies are commonly aimed at keeping pigs hydrated and encouraging them to eat despite their abdominal discomfort. Prevention techniques include improving immunity in the sow to reduce shedding of the virus during lactation and the use of dry disinfectants over scouring groups to reduce chilling and lower environmental virus exposure.

Antibiotics can be used for infections that are bacterial in nature. Some common bacterial causes of diarrhea in newly weaned pigs are E. coli, Salmonella and, occasionally, Clostridium perfringens or C. difficile. Ileitis and Brachyspira infections in recently weaned pigs are very uncommon but are possible in saturated environments. If a bacterial agent is suspected to be the cause, then a sample should be collected and cultured by a veterinarian, followed by a sensitivity test to understand what antibiotics are effective against the pathogen. It is a good practice to repeat this periodically, especially in unresponsive situations, to make sure no changes have taken place within the barn or herd. Antibiotics should always be used according to the instructions of the prescribing veterinarian in order to ensure that the treatment is effective both currently and in the future. If an infection is not responsive to treatment, then the cause should be re-evaluated to make sure there is not another factor complicating the challenge. Of course, an ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure, so good sanitation and biosecurity practices are paramount to preventing the exposure of pathogens to young pigs. 

3. Proper nutrition

A young pig has very specific nutritional needs, and if we expect too much of them, they will often fail. A big challenge with starting pigs is making sure that they all have access to the proper diet stage. In large facilities that can take weeks to fill, the amount of starter ration that the first pigs get is often much different than the amount allowed for the last pigs. Of course, bins and feed lines should be emptied between groups, as a pig’s last diet is not fit to be the first feed a recently weaned pig will eat. Finally, animals that are not eating in the pen — either because they are sick or just slow learners — will have looser stools because of their decreased solid feed intake. These animals should be placed in a separate hospital or special-needs pen so they can receive more intensive care to get back to a full feed intake.

There are many factors to consider when evaluating the cause and treatment of diarrhea in a group of recently weaned pigs. Be careful not to fall into the trap of missing all of the influencing factors; otherwise, a small challenge could quickly become a crisis. Ask questions, make sure the environment is correct for the pigs’ group size and weight, get your veterinarian and nutritionist involved, and make sure to record your successes and failures as you go. With patience and understanding, even the biggest challenges can be overcome!

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A diet feeder manufactured by Irish machinery brand Keenan, owned by Alltech, has been certified as the first environmentally sustainable diet feeder in the world. The certification was issued by Carbon Trust, a global organization headquartered in the UK that works with private and public organizations to become more resource efficient and reduce carbon impact.

Click here for full article. 

We are in the midst of some of the most significant scientific breakthroughs since Norman Borlaug's Green Revolution of the 1940s. Just as his innovative approach to crop science saved billions of lives, agriculture now stands poised to feed the rising population. What technology will drive the new era? Dr. Richard Lally joins us to discuss the most promising research from the field.

The following is an edited transcript of Kara Keeton's interview with Dr. Richard Lally, research scientist with Alltech. Click below to hear the full audio. 

Kara:              Alltech research scientist Richard Lally is with me today to discuss new opportunities in the crop science field. Thank you for joining me today.

Richard:         No problem — a pleasure to be here. Thanks for having me.

Kara:              Globally, consumers are demanding more and more plant-based foods and everyday items. How is this demand from consumers impacting Alltech's crop research?

Richard:         Yeah, it's a really interesting trend that we're seeing now in the food industry. The consumer appears to be demanding more and more plant-based products. There are a few different reasons for this. The people are more conscious now about where their food is coming from. They're demanding more sustainability. They're demanding that the foods that they're eating will have a better nutritional impact to them personally. There are also a few companies who are including more plant-based-type of promises on their labels to give a healthier, more natural feel to various types of products.

                        I think, from that standpoint, there's a real opportunity in research for us to definitely help people produce better food, more nutritious food, and also help them produce in a much more sustainable way so every industrial activity out there has some kind of an environmental impact. Really, what we aim to do and strive to do is try and help alleviate and limit some of those environmental impacts of agriculture. That's really what we're trying to do with our Alltech Crop Science research.

Kara:              Along with traditional crop science research in the lab, I know technology is playing a bigger and bigger role every day with research and out in the field. How can technology provide farmers avenues to help meet these demands for more plant-based products?

Richard:         It's such a fascinating, exciting time, at the moment. If you think back to Norman Borlaug's Green Revolution back in the late '30s and early '40s, that was really a transitional moment for agriculture and, particularly, in crop agriculture. We've seen a massive boom in yield, and it was really the ability to see the opportunity to pull all the technologies and the science that was there together in order to help benefit the output for crop production.

                        We are currently now in a period where we have some of the most exciting scientific breakthroughs that are happening. We have some of the most exciting technologies available to us now that we can use in plant breeding, et cetera.

Really, it's when we pull all of these technologies together and we figure out how to use them in a very strategic way and bring them to the farm, implement them on the farm — we're really going to see the acceleration of what we can merely call the second Green Revolution. There's an array of technologies now available to us that the farmers are currently using. They are currently generating data on the farm, and it's when we start figuring out how to decipher all of that information that we can start making real leaps and help feed the world in a very sustainable way.

Kara:              Do you have research out in the field right now, on farms or at Alltech, that can talk a little bit more about how that technology plays out day to day, both in analyzing the data as well as the production on the farm?

Richard:         Yes. Our focus as researchers in Crop Science is, we really tap into looking at the overall plant health and what exactly we can do to help benefit that. We work from every aspect of the plant or plant production, from the soil to the roots to the stem to the leaves, all the way up to the fruits and the grains. Alltech Crop Science has been around now for 25 years, and we have years and years of wonderful results from the field, so what we're really trying to do now is understand some of the mechanisms behind these programs that we're using with our applications and our materials.

A really, really neat technology that we can use is RNA sequencing, more of would be referred to as the “-omic”-based technologies. These are technologies that can give us a lot of information about the cellular metabolism of a plant, and we can decipher that by looking at things like RNA, looking at protein interactions, looking at the mineral status, looking at the metabolites of plants. By understanding that and understanding where our applications have a role within those technologies — understanding how our applications are impacting some of those subcellular molecular processes — we can help basically guide strategies and guide programs for growers to help them produce more foods and help them protect their crops from stresses, be they biotic or abiotic stresses.

Kara:              What are some of the mechanisms in Crop Science that are not only helping growers — that you're using out in the field right now to produce a better product — but that are also helping the growers see a profit on that bottom line?

Richard:         Again, we work with growers. We work with our partners who help growers, and we try and develop a strategy for a grower. We offer a program and, again, we work with the soil. We work with the plant health. Really, what we're looking at doing — are there any mechanisms within the plant that the plant can naturally call on to help it boost its growth on its own? For example, we could be looking at a defense mechanism. Is there anything we can do to help upregulate some of those benefits in the plant, which can then lead to a reduction in the need for things like the harsh or harder chemistries that would be generally overused in some systems? From a soil health angle, we might look at how we can benefit the soil by using some of our applications. Is there anything we can do to stimulate some of the microbial communities around the roots? This will help us boost better root growth, which will improve the overall health of the plant.

Kara:              Now, Richard, I know that, in 2016, you won the Alltech Young Scientist Graduate Award. What was that experience like for you? How did that impact your research that you're doing today and inspire you to continue down this road of researching crop production?

Richard:         Yes. That was a really, really special moment for me in my life. I was working with some soil microorganisms at the time I submitted. I was advised by my professor at the time to submit a paper, and lo and behold, I ended up winning the competition. I think the real benefit to that experience was experiencing ONE: The Alltech Ideas Conference. I think it's a fabulous opportunity for the industry to come together and talk in a very down-to-earth way about the challenges in the industry — and we see, year after year, that there's constantly action, and it comes from this meeting that is having a huge impact in the industry.

                        I think the other thing, really — having worked with Alltech now for a number of years — it's actually using that technology that we work with and bringing it to a commercial setting. When I was a researcher doing my graduate program, I didn't really see that opportunity, and it's because I'm a scientist — and maybe I'm not as entrepreneurial as I should be — but the wonderful thing about Alltech was, they identify these mechanisms. They've identified these benefits from these fermentation applications, and they bring them out to the field, and they provide them for growers to actually have a real impact in the industry. So that, to me, was probably the most exciting part.

Kara:              I think it's always exciting when you see something you imagine or you see on paper put into action, and that's what you're saying you see on these farm trials and with farmers.

Richard:         Yeah, absolutely. It's been a pleasure working with the Alltech Crop Science products because, when I start introducing them into experiments, you get these really strong responses, so there are mechanisms that have existed and that we've loosely known about for years and years and years, but now, we've really taken out the magnifying glass and are having a look at what's happening. So, it's really interesting and fascinating to work with these applications for the better good of agriculture. It's really exciting to be a scientist working in this area.

Kara:              As a scientist in this area, I know that you have seen many things develop, since you've been working in this field the past several years, but I'm sure that you have visions of what will come down the road as you continue your research. Where you do hope to see crop sciences in five or ten years? Is there anything on the horizon that is really exciting to you or you see potential for?

Richard:         Well, I think crop science — the industry and the developments that are happening — I think we're going to see crazy changes over the next decade from the digital technology that's available on the farm. I was recently on an almond grove, and there were people measuring how trees are shrinking and expanding in response to water stress and, then, guiding water or strategies based on these technologies, which were leading to a reduction in water use, et cetera. There are other technologies now, like CRISPR; it's being used broadly. Actually, the European Union have blocked some of the regulations around CRISPR at the moment, but other places are embracing it — like Russia have announced that they're going to be investing in it. North America: We see it's allowed to be used here as well. So, I think, using the technologies that are there, we're going to see some really, really interesting breakthroughs.

                        More of what I'm working with, the gene expression and other things: We have worked with Alltech on nutrigenomics, which is just the study of the gene expression. I think, using these technologies and really starting to understand the biochemistry behind some of the pathways that we're looking at, that we're really going to have a major impact. We're going to be able to produce healthier fruits, vegetables. We're going to be much more sustainable in our production through nutrient use, the reduction of pesticides, things like that. I think the future looks really bright, in my eyes.

Kara:              It sounds like there's a lot of new opportunities out there for you in the future, and I wish you luck in your research.

Richard:         Thank you very much. Thanks for having me today.

Kara:              Thanks for coming in. That was Alltech research scientist Dr. Richard Lally.

I want to learn more about improving crop efficiency and yield. 

Irish-based machinery brand, KEENAN, has been validated by the Carbon Trust as a more sustainable diet feeder, proven to reduce methane emissions on-farm. 

Click here to read full article. 

As a horse owner, there are few things more stressful than dealing with a hay shortage. Hearing the dreaded words, “I’m sorry, but I’m all out for the year,” can leave even the most prepared owner scrambling. Unfortunately, changing weather patterns have caused hay shortages to become increasingly more common throughout the U.S. Some areas have experienced sustained droughts, making it nearly impossible for crops to yield adequate supplies, while other areas have experienced several consecutive years of extremely wet spring and summer seasons, making it difficult for producers to cut hay in a timely manner. This has resulted in decreased supplies, lower-quality forages and record high prices. While some parts of the country are still producing ample supplies of high-quality hay, accessibility for those experiencing shortages can be limited by the challenge and expense of shipping.

Things would be far less challenging if we could just increase concentrates to make up for the decreased amount of hay in our horses’ diets. While it may be tempting to do this when hay supplies are limited, we must keep in mind that horses require forage in their diets; removing it could have major health and behavioral consequences. A constant supply of fiber is required to keep the microbial populations in the horse’s intestinal tract happy, and limiting or removing forage can result in issues such as colic and gastric ulcers. In addition, limiting forage can result in increased occurrences of unwanted vices, such as wood-chewing.

If possible, at least part of the fiber in the diet should come from long-stemmed forages, like hay or pasture grasses. Horses are grazing animals that have evolved to consume small amounts of forage throughout the day — and long-stemmed fiber provides them with much-needed “chew time.” Short-stemmed and processed fiber sources take less time to consume, which can lead to boredom and, in turn, the development of stereotypical vice behaviors. Research has shown, however, that horses can survive on a diet featuring only short-stemmed or processed forages as the source of fiber. As long as care is taken to decrease the horses’ boredom — which can be done by feeding multiple small meals, among other strategies — these alternative forage sources can be used to stretch your limited hay supply.

What steps can you take if you are a horse owner facing a hay shortage?

1. Get the most out of your hay supply. Purchasing higher-quality hay gives you an upper hand because it allows you to meet your animal’s nutritional requirements with less than what would be required if you were feeding a lower-quality hay. Feeding smaller, more frequent meals and using hay nets and feeders can greatly reduce the amount of hay that is wasted.
2. Increase grazing. Depending on the availability and time of year, increase the time spent on pasture to allow for the increased consumption of fresh grass, which can help to reduce your hay burden. A rotational grazing strategy, along with a carefully organized pasture maintenance plan, can help thwart the detrimental effects increased grazing time can have on pasture quality.
3. Consider purchasing bagged pelleted, cubed or chopped hay. These items can be purchased at many local feed supply stores, making them easily accessible alternative forage sources. They can be made from grass or legume hay, but the most common sources are timothy and alfalfa. Although they are more expensive than traditional baled hay, these alternatives are both dust- and mold-free, can be easily stored for long periods of time and often come with a minimum basic nutritional analysis on the bag. Pellets, which are formed from dried, ground hay, provide the nutrition and fiber of standard forage but do not provide the same bulk for gut fill as long-stemmed forages. Cubes are simply pressed chopped hay, but caution should be used when feeding cubes to horses that are prone to choke. For senior horses or those with dental issues, soaking pellets and cubes can make this source of forage somewhat easier to consume. Chopped hay — often called chaff — is simply hay that has been cut into short pieces prior to bagging. At one time, chaff was made primarily from straw that provided little nutritional value, but higher-quality grass and legume chaff is now commercially available.
4. Haylage may help. Although they are not a popular feed choice in the U.S., ensiled forages can also be safely fed to horses, provided that some precautions are taken. Haylage should only be purchased from reputable sources, as incorrect preparation or storage can result in contamination by mold or botulism bacteria. Because of its unique taste and smell, it may take time for horses to get used to eating haylage. It is important to note that haylage can actually provide more nutrients than baled hay, as the ensiling process retains nutrients better than traditional hay curing.
5. Extend your hay supply with a commercially available product. While beet pulp is not appropriate as the sole source of fiber in a horse’s diet, it is a good, palatable source of digestible fiber. It is also relatively inexpensive. Hay stretcher pellets and soy hulls are also good sources of fiber, and they, too, can be used as a partial replacement for hay — but, once again, they should not be used as the only source of fiber in the diet. In addition, many feed producers offer lines of complete feeds, and while these are often marketed for senior horses, they can be found and used for horses at all stages of life. When fed according to manufacturer guidelines, these complete feeds may be fed as the sole ration, requiring no additional forage source. Complete feeds often contain hay meal and are fortified to meet all of the nutritional needs of the horse. They also contain a higher amount of crude fiber than a standard commercial feed.

No horse owner wants to face the headache of a hay shortage. Ensuring that your horses are receiving adequate nutrition during these times can be challenging no matter how well you have planned. Fortunately, several options exist that can help you stretch your hay supply and keep your horses happy and healthy through these stressful times.

I want to learn more about equine nutrition.

Por Profesor Ricardo Souza Vasconcellos, Universidad Estatal de Maringá, Brasil.

Debido a que los gatos son originarios de las regiones áridas del planeta, tienen una capacidad superior para adaptarse a un bajo consumo de agua, en comparación de otras especies, como los humanos y los perros (NCR, 2006). Aunque esto podría parecer una ventaja, se considera que una baja ingesta de agua es un factor influyente para el desarrollo de enfermedades del tracto urinario, como la urolitiasis y la cistitis idiopática (Little, 2016).

Estas dos enfermedades afectan comúnmente a gatos jóvenes y son atribuidas a deficiencias en el manejo nutricional y ambiental. Se estima que entre el 1.5 y el 3% de las atenciones a gatos en hospitales y clínicas veterinarias están relacionadas con estas enfermedades (Forrester et al., 2010). Y también se considera que estos dos males son responsables del 80% de todos los problemas relacionados con el tracto urinario en felinos. Sin embargo, esto puede reducirse o incluso prevenirse a través de la intervención nutricional y el manejo ambiental.

Los signos clínicos más comunes de animales con urolitiasis o cistitis son la hematuria, la disuria, la polaquiuria y la periuria (Little, 2016). Si bien el diagnóstico y el tratamiento clínico son relativamente simples, es muy común ver las recurrencias de estas enfermedades. Por ello, las estrategias nutricionales y ambientales deben ser constantes para reducir la posibilidad de que vuelvan a aparecer.

En nutrición hay dos aspectos cruciales a considerar cuando se previenen problemas en el tracto urinario inferior, incluyendo el control de los niveles de sal y del pH de la orina. Se recomienda promover la ingesta de agua, ya que es la mejor manera de evitar la sobresaturación de sales en la orina y el desarrollo eventual de cristales y cálculos urinarios. Y sobre controlar el pH urinario, esto ayudará a evitar la formación de cálculos renales. La regla general es mantener el pH urinario entre 6.2 y 6.8.

Se han implementado diferentes estrategias para promover el consumo de agua en los gatos, como facilitarles el acceso a agua por toda la casa, ofrecerles agua limpia y fresca, bebidas palatables, dietas húmedas y el aumento de los niveles de sodio en los alimentos comerciales secos. Se ha comprobado que todas estas estrategias funcionan con éxito en gatos que enfrentan problemas urinarios. Y el uso de una o más estrategias juntas podría ser beneficioso (Forrester, 2010).

Se pueden desarrollar diferentes tipos de cálculos renales dependiendo del nivel de pH. Las condiciones de pH, combinadas con la saturación de sal en la orina, promueven la precipitación de sales y, por lo tanto, el desarrollo de urolitos. La estrategia más efectiva para regular el pH, a través de la intervención en la dieta, es mediante el ajuste de la composición de los macroelementos (por ejemplo sodio, potasio, calcio, magnesio, cloro, azufre y fósforo). Los macroelementos catiónicos como el sodio, el potasio, el calcio y el magnesio promueven la alcalinización de la orina; mientras que los elementos aniónicos, como el cloro, el azufre y el fósforo favorecen la acidificación. Los niveles y la concentración de estos macroelementos pueden formularse en la dieta. Las sales con propiedades de acidificación o alcalinización se usan frecuentemente (Jeremias et al., 2013).

En conclusión, promover la ingesta de agua y controlar el pH urinario son la base para prevenir las infecciones del tracto urinario en felinos. Y también es importante cuidar el medio ambiente, ya que la urolitiasis y la cistitis están relacionadas con factores de estrés ambiental, como la llegada de una nueva mascota al hogar, las estancias prolongadas de huéspedes o reformas en casa.

Referencias

BARTGES, J. W.; CALLENS, A. J. Urolithiasis. Vet Clin Small Anim 45 (2015) 747–768, 2015.

FORRESTER, S. D.; J. M. KRUGER; T. A. ALLEN. Feline lower urinary tract disease. In: M. S.

Hand, D. D. Thatcher; R. L. Remillard; P. Roudebush; and B. J. Novotny, editors, Small animal clinical nutrition, 5th ed. Mark Morris Institute, Topeka, KS. p. 926–976, 2010.

JEREMIAS, J. T. et al. Predictive formulas for food base excess and urinary pH of cats. Metabolism Clinical and Experimental. V. 182, n.1-4, p.82-92

LITTLE, S. E. O Gato – Medicina Interna. Ed. Roca, Rio de Janeiro, 1310 p., 2016.

NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL. Nutrient requirements of dogs and cats. Washington: The National Academy, 2006.

With feed the single biggest variable cost, Somerset dairy farm manager Ben Yates has partnered with Alltech to understand where feed losses are occurring and the financial opportunity behind these losses. Dairy Farmer reports. 

Feed is the biggest input within a dairy business, with a typical 1.5 million litre herd spending around £250,000 on feed inputs annually. However, research suggests as much as one third of this could be being lost in both physical wastage and under-utilisation, putting a serious dent in margins.

While it’s impossible to eradicate waste completely, keeping feed waste below 10% should be the target, according to Alltech’s Programme Manager Ian Leach, who has set up an initiative to help dairy farmers slash feed waste and improve business profitability.

“Evidence suggests that feed waste on a typical dairy farm sits anywhere between 25 and 45 percent. To put this in perspective, this could be costing producers as much as £1 in every £3 spent on feed inputs,” says Mr Leach.

“The good news, there is plenty producers can be doing to cut the level of feed waste, both in terms of physical losses and under utilisation of feed within the cow herself. And, it’s fairly easy to achieve incremental gains. This provides the dairy industry with a significant opportunity to improve margins.”

Mr Leach says a holistic approach is key to improving the level of wastage on-farm. “There are multiple opportunities where feed waste can occur including within the field, during storage, at feed-out and, inside the cow. It’s important that dairy businesses recognise the areas where feed waste is occurring and take a whole-system view on the problem to achieve the best possible level of improvement.”

Feed waste assessment

To support farm businesses in reducing feed waste, Alltech will be offering UK dairy farmers a free on-farm feed waste assessment. The assessment looks at multiple parameters across each area of stage within the feed process, starting within the field right through to the rumen, and identifies the pinch points where improvement measures should be focused.

1. In the field

“Field losses can be due to a variety of factors including; management of the grazing platform, efficacy of fertiliser applications, reseeding interval and harvest conditions. Measurements taken within the field to assess the potential level of waste include total utilisable dry matter volume, energy per acre and the level of poaching.”

2. At storage

“Feed losses during storage can be significant, particularly for ensiled feed, with 25 percent silage dry matter losses within clamps regularly seen. Rodents and birds can be a culprit, but also seepage and run-off from forage clamps, as well as mould spoilage, can cause a moderate degree of wastage,” says Mr Leach. “To calculate the level of wastage, ash loss off the top one meter, temperature, visible top loss and the presence of mould are all areas that are analysed.”

3. During feed-out

The extent of feed waste during feed-out largely depends on the feeding system in place, accuracy and attention to detail. “While the use of a diet feeder undoubtedly increases efficiency compared to a bale or clamp system, inaccurate loading will result in waste. Diet sorting can also be a big issue, so if the ration isn’t optimally mixed, the less palatable components can easily be left in the trough. Number of push ups, evidence of heating, physical feed wastage and ration sorting, are some of the measurements taken during this part of the assessment,” explains Mr Leach.

4. Inside the cow

Environment

“There are several environmental factors which affect feed intakes, including; space to access feed and water plus water quality, ambient temperature, ventilation, and light and even small changes can have an impact on feed intakes,” he says. “For example, nominal losses will start to be observed at temperatures between 15 and 21 degrees. All of these parameters are measured during the assessment.”

Health and fertility

Mr Leach says the biggest area for potential wastage is within the cow itself. “While rumen losses are a key driver, health and fertility are also critical control points. For example, if the cow was suffering from a metabolic disease or illness, the vast majority of feed wouldn’t be going into production resulting in a high degree of waste. Incidence rates of metabolic diseases, as well as fertility KPI’s including calving interval and services per conception are all assessed.”

Rumen

“Drops in rumen function and feed conversion efficiency (FCE) is a driver of potentially high levels of waste, with unbalanced rations, inconsistency in diet presentation and feed intakes, and potential mycotoxin issues, being the key causes,” says Mr Leach. “Rumen health is assessed using a variety of measures including dung inconsistency, dung score and NASCO screen sieve. Feed conversion efficiency (FCE) is also monitored, with drops in FCE being an indicator of poor rumen health and function.”

Case study – Ben Yates, Y Farm Partnership

Ben Yates runs a high yielding 1100-head Holstein Friesian herd in Somerset. Cows are housed all year round and milked three-times/day, pushing average yields to 10,000 litres.

Since taking over management of the herd in 2017, Ben has set out on a mission to transform the business, with a goal of operating to the highest level of efficiency and performance to achieve the best possible margins.

Despite already applying a high level of attention to detail across the business when it comes to feed management, he recognised there were potential areas where excessive waste could be occurring. This led him to undertake a feed waste assessment.

“We always need to be looking to make efficiencies. It’s easy to lose money in a unit of this size and we therefore have to scrutinise every aspect from cow health to feed health,” says Mr Yates.

Louise Clarke, ruminant specialist at Alltech explains the results of the assessment. “Overall the system is incredibly well managed, and Ben has already implemented a number of practices that support the reduction of feed waste.

“This includes well thought-out housing, which provides adequate space, lighting and ventilation as well as good water quality and access – all factors which influence dry matter intake and if suboptimal can increase physical wastage, reduce rumen efficiency and even impair cow health,” says Ms Clarke.

She says during the feed-out process, the high attention to detail applied is paying dividends, with an insignificant level of feed waste identified at this stage. “All yard spillages are collected, feed is pushed up on a regular basis throughout the day, and the KEENAN controller connected to the KEENAN Vertical Auger diet feeder is keeping loading inaccuracies to a minimum. The recorded level of loading inaccuracies was less than three percent, significantly lower than in some systems where this figure can be as high as 45 percent.

“Storage was identified as one area where improvements could be made, particularly within the maize silage clamps, with financial losses of £24,000 per year for the maize clamp and £8,500 for the silage clamp. Total storage losses account for seven percent of the total financial impact calculated during the assessment.”

Mr Yates already has plans to install a new maize clamp and following Alltech’s feed waste assessment, it was suggested a slopping-walled clamp to aid side compaction along with increased attention on the walls of the clamp during buckraking.

Within the milking herd, there is huge potential for feed waste due to sub-optimal utilisation and this area provides the greatest potential for improvement within the system at Y-Farm Partnership. “While recorded metabolic disease incidence rates are less than 5 percent resulting in minimal impact, fertility is an area where inefficiencies were identified,” says Ms Clarke. “Calving interval is sitting at 380 days, with a 2.7 services/conception for the main herd, highlighting scope for improvement”

FCE was also something that could be increased. It currently averages 1.4 and the target should be 1.5. “With just a 0.1 reduction costing around £12,000 based on a 100-cow herd, this is having a significant financial impact, particularly due to the scale of the system. Specific nutritional strategies to prioritise rumen health should therefore be considered and are likely to prove highly cost effective due to the high financial impact of suboptimal FCE.”

Overall, Ms Clarke says Y-Farm Partnership has very few areas where waste is occurring, both physical waste and under-utilisation. “However, due to it being a large-scale system with annual feed costs in excess of 2.5 million, the financial impact, which takes into account a combination of actual wasted feed and underutilised inputs is very high, nearly £400k per annum. It therefore warrants investment in improvement measures,” she concludes.

Table 1: Financial impact of feed waste at Y Farm Partnership, based on a combination of physical feed waste and under-utilised inputs

Graph 1: Average feed losses (£/cow/year) at Y Farm Partnership compared to the UK average as calculated during Alltech’s feed waste pilot study (2019)

Raj Kasula es consultor técnico avícola en Ridley Feed Ingredients. Un científico animal profesional certificado por American Registry of Professional Animal Scientists, tiene más de 28 años de experiencia en nutrición animal multiespecie con un enfoque en avicultura. Actualmente encabeza el desarrollo de una versión moderna del software de nutrición de ponedoras llamado Alltech Poultry Model. También es el líder de Alltech en proyectos como Alltech Egg Squad, bloques para aves, un desparasitante natural, un alimento extruido para pollos en etapa de inicio y una premezcla de vitaminas y minerales.

A continuación una transcripción editada de la entrevista de Tom Martin con el Dr. Raj Kasula.

¿Están los consumidores más críticos con la calidad del huevo? ¿Qué buscan en un huevo?

A nivel del consumidor, probablemente no sean tan críticos con respecto a la calidad de la cáscara del huevo. Sin embargo, los consumidores están interesados ​​en la calidad del huevo de tal manera que al ir al supermercado, buscan una selección de huevos, desde huevos comerciales regulares hasta huevos de aves camperas u orgánicos hasta huevos enriquecidos, buscan términos de pigmento, omega-3, selenio o vitamina E. Por lo tanto, sí, definitivamente están buscando la calidad y valor en el huevo en comparación con la creencia tradicional de que “un huevo es simplemente un huevo”.

Tengo curiosidad, la mayoría de nosotros nos aseguramos que los huevos no estén partidos, pero ¿qué busca alguien con su experiencia cuando va al supermercado a comprar huevos?

Al formar parte de la industria y trabajar tan estrechamente con las aves y los huevos, mi forma de ver los huevos es realmente diferente. Definitivamente, busco la calidad total en términos de los parámetros externos del huevo: forma, color, fuerza (cualquier grieta), qué tan limpios y tan brillantes están; con cada uno de estos parámetros, puedo saber sobre la gallina, y qué está pasando con ella. Entonces, definitivamente, sí, mi visión es totalmente diferente.

Desde la perspectiva del productor, ¿cuáles son las características de una calidad superior de la cáscara del huevo?

Desde la perspectiva del productor, casi un 90 por ciento de los huevos que no llegan al mercado se debe a la mala calidad de la cáscara. Un productor produce huevos para ganar dinero, y no gana dinero a menos que esos huevos lleguen al mercado. Por lo tanto, para tener devoluciones, tiene que llevar los huevos al mercado, y si la cáscara no es buena —no muestra buen color, buena forma; no es lo suficientemente dura, el huevo tiene grietas o están sucios— estos no llegarán al mercado. Y en más del 90 por ciento de los casos este es el principal problema por lo cual los huevos no llegan al mercado.

Mencioné que, para el consumidor promedio, abrimos la caja de huevos y vemos si están rotos, y así tomamos nuestra decisión, pero ¿qué tan importante es la rotura de un huevo? ¿Existen formas, a través de la nutrición, de fortalecer la cáscara para evitar que se agrieten fácilmente?

La rotura de la cáscara del huevo es en realidad un fenómeno natural. A medida que el ave crece, aumenta el tamaño del huevo. La capacidad de la glándula de la cáscara de depositar calcio en un huevo sigue siendo la misma. Es capaz de proporcionar la misma cantidad de calcio en el huevo. Por lo tanto, cuando un huevo crece más, se vuelve un poco más débil y se rompe, o se puede agrietar. Existe un fenómeno natural, pero luego, hay formas, por medio de la nutrición y el manejo, en que podemos tratar de minimizar esto.

¿En cierto punto en el ciclo de vida del ave el productor debería comenzar a pensar en el desarrollo del huevo y en la calidad de la cáscara del huevo?

Normalmente, alrededor de las 45-50 semanas de edad. Si el productor ha estado en el negocio y tiene suficiente experiencia, sabe que tiene que tomar algunas precauciones adicionales en cuanto a nutrición y manejo para la calidad de la cáscara del huevo, y generalmente lo hace.

¿Recomienda una estrategia nutricional general o éstas varían de una granja a otra, o depende del tipo de ave?

Es bastante general, aunque existen pequeñas diferencias en función del tipo de producción, como el libre de jaula u orgánico o aves camperas, y los huevos de especialidad. Para estos hay algunas estrategias diferentes.

¿Qué tipo de aditivos nutricionales, como vitaminas y minerales, han demostrado ser eficaces para garantizar la calidad superior externa e interna del huevo?

Primero hablemos sobre la calidad externa. Para la calidad externa, especialmente para la resistencia de la cáscara, la clave es el calcio. Es muy importante asegurarse de proporcionar todos los requerimientos específicos para la fisiología de las aves para que puedan absorber el calcio del intestino; los niveles de calcio y los niveles de fósforo trabajan en conjunto. Está comprobado que el fósforo, en niveles muy altos, más allá del punto de producción, no es realmente bueno para la calidad de la cáscara. Hay otro mineral llamado magnesio, que también es importante, fortalece la calidad de la cáscara, y ayuda a que los minerales de calcio se depositen en la cáscara.

Además de esto, está la vitamina D, que es importante para la absorción de calcio en el intestino. La vitamina D en realidad mejora la célula —las células intersticiales—del intestino para digerir el calcio. Por lo tanto, es muy importante.

Los minerales traza son también muy importantes, porque aunque son pequeños en cantidad —se requieren cantidades muy pequeñas en la ración— cuando los vemos en la ración, pensamos: “Son cantidades pequeñas. ¿Realmente hacen una diferencia? ” Y sí realmente la hacen. Por lo tanto, el zinc es importante y [es] una enzima que en realidad ayuda a la formación de carbonato de calcio proveniente del calcio de la sangre y el bicarbonato de la sangre.

Asimismo, tenemos el manganeso que ayuda en la formación de colágeno, y es importante para la formación del huevo y la membrana de la cáscara. Luego tenemos el cobre para algunas de las glicoproteínas, que también son componentes de la cáscara y la membrana de la cáscara. Por otra parte, el selenio, es muy importante para mantener la salud de las células intersticiales para que puedan absorber rápidamente más nutrición. Todo esto es muy importante, y lo recomiendo.

¿Usted recomienda lo orgánico?

Recomiendo lo orgánico en términos de eficiencia. Los minerales traza en forma inorgánica, su uso y beneficios, han sido analizados y probados durante décadas. Pero, la tendencia actual es hacia minerales orgánicos ya que son mucho más eficientes. Si nos fijamos en la literatura científica, se dice que los minerales orgánicos son entre tres y seis veces mejor absorbidos en el intestino en comparación con los minerales inorgánicos. Esto es mucho más eficiente, ya que ofrecemos menos alimento al animal mientras obtenemos más, y no contaminamos el medio ambiente —el suelo— con minerales que no se absorben.

Considero que la mayor desventaja, con los minerales inorgánicos no absorbidos, es que alimentan a las "bacterias" en el intestino, y no es lo que queremos. Estas cuando obtienen este tipo de nutrientes, se vuelven más robustas y más agresivas. Existen suficientes investigaciones para afirmar que los minerales orgánicos tienen un rendimiento mucho mejor que los minerales inorgánicos, incluso a niveles más bajos, y de forma sostenible.

¿Lo que es bueno para la cáscara también es bueno para el animal internamente? ¿Hay aditivos, minerales, vitaminas diferentes o adicionales que deberían considerarse para la salud interna? ¿También se debe pensar en las interacciones entre estos?

Si hablamos acerca de la calidad interna del huevo, hay algunos minerales en la masa del huevo que son los mismos minerales necesarios para la calidad de la cáscara externa. Hay consideraciones adicionales para la calidad de la proteína y algunas de las vitaminas, y si el productor se centra en el color de su yema de huevo —un pigmento más oscuro. Si se buscan producir huevos enriquecidos con omega-3, omega-6, selenio o vitamina D, vitamina E, esas son estrategias y tecnologías adicionales que se pueden utilizar para asegurar su presencia en la yema del huevo.

Habló sobre el calcio. ¿Es importante considerar el tamaño de la partícula de dicho calcio?

Sí, la principal fuente de calcio en las raciones es la piedra caliza. La piedra caliza está disponible en muchos tamaños como fino, medio y grueso. Hay investigaciones que muestran que, cuando la piedra caliza se utiliza en partículas más grandes, especialmente en las gallinas ponedoras más viejas, cuando las aves comienzan la postura requieren una liberación constante de calcio. Si el tamaño de partícula es demasiado fino, se disuelve y se absorbe muy rápidamente, y también se excreta muy rápido, por lo tanto no hay un nivel continuo o constante de calcio. Una partícula más grande se disuelve lentamente y proporciona un nivel constante, y el ave puede calcificar la cáscara durante la noche cuando no está comiendo, lo cual es muy importante.

Las partículas más grandes de piedra caliza también nos ayudará a la molienda de la ración, los nutrientes, el grano que se está consumiendo, libera nutrientes y previene la digestión para el ataque de los buenos ácidos y enzimas en etapas posteriores.

Si analizamos algunos de los problemas más comunes que enfrentan los productores de huevos actualmente. ¿Cuáles serían?

 Las enfermedades son muy complejas y varían de un mercado a otro. Pero en general, como productor y nutricionista, el más común es la calidad de la cáscara. También hay problemas de comportamiento, como el picoteo. Las aves comienzan a picotearse y terminan matándose entre sí  —el canibalismo. Estos son algunos de los problemas que comúnmente encontramos. Hay casos en los que también vemos problemas con gusanos; especialmente cuando las aves que tienen acceso al suelo y al exterior, y terminan consumiendo algunos de los huevos de lombrices, esto causa graves pérdidas en la producción.

En los últimos años, particularmente, en los Estados Unidos hemos visto algunos picos de micotoxinas en el ensilaje y materias primas. ¿Los productores de huevos se preocupan por las micotoxinas?

Claro que sí, nadie quiere correr riesgos con las micotoxinas. No son fáciles de ver; si un ingrediente en particular tiene micotoxinas o no, por ejemplo, el maíz o lo que tengamos, estas no necesariamente se detectan a simple vista. Por lo tanto, el mejor enfoque sería, por ejemplo, asegurarnos de contar siempre con una tecnología secuestrante de micotoxinas o absorbente de micotoxinas incorporada en la ración. Y, normalmente, todos los nutricionistas tienen esta consideración.

Cuéntenos sobre el software de nutrición para ponedoras en el que está trabajando en este momento.

El software de nutrición para ponedoras en el que estoy trabajando se llama Alltech Poultry Model. Es un software modelado para una raza en particular —cualquier raza— en función de su ciclo de vida, la forma en que se comportaría la raza, modos de ración y los niveles de nutrientes necesarios en función de su producción y mantenimiento corporal. También considera los parámetros ambientales, como la temperatura más alta y más baja y la cantidad de alimento que consume el ave.

Este software proporciona una muy buena idea de los niveles de nutrientes que el ave necesita para lo que sea que esté haciendo en el momento en particular cuando evaluamos a dicha ave. Cuando ingresamos estos parámetros y los ingredientes disponibles, el software dice: “Esto es lo que esta ave necesita, y así debería ser la ración”. Luego, el nutricionista lo evalúa y aprueba o hace los ajustes necesarios.

¿Hay alguna tendencia emergente, alguna nueva tecnología en avicultura, que haya captado su atención e interés?

 Sí, últimamente, al menos en los Estados Unidos, la tendencia es la producción libre de jaulas, orgánica y de aves camperas. Además, los huevos de especialidad enriquecidos con pigmentos, omegas, vitamina D, vitamina E. Estas son las tendencias y las personas las buscan. Yo diría que están agregando a su gama un segmento, un conjunto de productos, nicho de mercado —huevos con este tipo de enriquecimiento especializado. Esto es algo que he visto, son las tendencias y, especialmente, la producción orgánica está aumentando mucho más rápido de lo que pensábamos.

Raj Kasula es consultor técnico avícola en Ridley Feed Ingredients.

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