Beef sustainability encompasses the multifaceted environmental, economic and social aspects of production systems that upcycle feedstuffs inedible for humans into high-quality beef protein for human consumption. Discussion around the environmental impacts associated with beef production often focuses on greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions as a measurable value. Carbon footprints are a tool for quantifying those emissions to benchmark baseline GHG production of beef systems.  

Carbon footprints include three main GHGs — carbon dioxide (CO₂), methane (CH₄) and nitrous oxide (N₂O) — and each has a different global warming potential (GWP). The GWP is a measure of how much heat a gas will absorb in the atmosphere in relation to CO₂ over a given time frame. The larger the GWP, the more that gas warms the earth compared to CO₂. Carbon footprints are expressed as carbon dioxide equivalents (CO₂-eq), which accounts for the different GWP of each GHG relative to CO₂.

Visualization of comparative warming impact of a single emission of a tonne of methane (CH₄) or nitrous oxide (N₂O) compared to a ton of carbon dioxide, averaged over 20 years and 100 years. Source: Crops and Soils.

As companies set sustainability goals to reach net-zero emissions by 2050, carbon footprints are one piece of the GHG accounting puzzle. The IPCC has concluded that net-zero emissions by 2050 will be necessary to remain consistent at 1.5°C of warming, and net zero is recognized as the international goal to bring the climate crisis to a halt. Similarly, the Paris Agreement, set in 2015 as an international treaty on climate change, states its goals in terms of temperature, targeting global warming limits of less than 2°C.

Carbon neutral, net zero, or climate positive?

Whether emissions goals are discussed in relation to temperature or volume reductions, several terms are used interchangeably, often leading to confusion. “Carbon neutral,” “net zero” and “climate positive” sound similar, and all can be used to describe emissions (CO₂ or CO₂-eq) above, below, or at a net level of zero — but they refer to different GHG accounting outcomes.

Carbon neutral refers to a business removing the same amount of CO₂ from the atmosphere as it releases, thus making the carbon accounting balance zero.

Net-zero emissions balance the total GHGs emitted by an activity, not just CO₂, with an equivalent amount of removed, reduced or avoided emissions from the atmosphere. For example, a beef production system may be classified as net zero if GHG emissions from the system are balanced by an equivalent amount sequestered on the land that produced the beef. Similarly to net zero, climate neutrality can be achieved by emitting GHGs at an equal rate to their removal from the atmosphere.

Carbon negative and climate positive are used interchangeably and generally refer to the same accounting outcome. Both mean that an activity goes beyond achieving net zero by removing more CO₂-eq or CO₂ from the atmosphere than is emitted, thereby producing an additional environmental benefit. So, for example, beef production may be considered climate positive if more carbon was sequestered than emitted by the system.

Carbon positive is an additional term commonly used. It means that an entity produces more emissions than zero. Not to be confused with carbon negative, carbon positive describes most business-as-usual situations, as most companies produce more carbon than they remove from the atmosphere.

Where is beef production on the negative, neutral, positive scale?

In 2021, the National Cattlemen’s Beef Association (NCBA) verified the U.S. beef industry’s commitment to sustainability with the announcement of its environmental goal to attain climate neutrality in U.S. cattle production by 2040. In order for the beef sector to reach climate neutrality, innovation will be required, with a focus on methane emissions. Possible paths to climate neutrality for the beef and dairy sectors are discussed in a white paper published by the CLEAR Center (Place, S.E., and F.M. Mitloehner, 2021), highlighting the important fact that the GHG footprints of animal agriculture are largely made up of methane.

Applying metrics that account for warming differences in long-lived CO₂ and short-lived CH₄ emissions, animal agriculture’s goal of climate neutrality can be met by reaching net-zero CO₂ emissions combined with stable or declining emissions of short-lived GHGs such as CH₄. Reducing enteric and methane emissions by 18–32% in the coming decades can help the cattle industry reach climate neutrality by 2050, but not without partnered reductions in emissions of CO₂ and N₂O from feed production, land use and energy use (Place and Mitloehner, 2021).

Representation of the difference in atmospheric concentration responses for a scenario of constant annual emissions between long-lived, stock gases such as CO2 and short-lived, flow gases such as CH4. Adapted from Allen et al., 2018.
Source: CLEAR Center Climate Neutrality White Paper.

In short, climate neutrality goals for the beef industry are obtainable within the timelines set, but the shift will require strong and constant collaboration throughout the agriculture sector to make sure that these goals in sustainable economic, social and environmental outcomes are being met.

I want to learn more about beef nutrition. 

Cattle are relatively less sensitive to the cold when compared to other domestic animals. This hardiness is due to their large size, their usually effective thermal insulation through thick haircoats and extra fat, and the amount of heat they produce through normal digestion and metabolism. In particular, cattle that are already acclimated to the cold are able to increase their metabolisms to prevent hypothermia during periods of severe cold stress.

However, not all cattle have this ability, at least not to a sufficient extent, either because they are not accustomed to extreme cold or because of variations in age or breed. By taking some simple steps, producers can help their cattle stay comfortable, healthy and productive through the long winter days and nights to come.

Feeding for maximum cold protection

Dairy cows, for instance, must maintain a core body temperature of around 101 degrees. Cold stress occurs when the weather gets cold and a cow’s metabolic processes are not enough to keep her temperature at 101. When this occurs, the cow will divert her energy to maintain a normal body temperature, and this leaves less energy for essentials such as weight maintenance, reproductive function and milk production.

In fact, a USDA study has highlighted that maintenance energy requirements for lactating cows increase by a full 50% when the temperature falls from freezing (32°F) to 0°F. It is not uncommon for cows to require an additional 20% more feed during cold weather (Table 1) to maintain body condition and productivity and to ward off illness. This is especially true because they naturally add a layer of fat as insulation, and this requires a higher caloric intake.

Table 1. Temperature effects on dry matter intake in cattle

Cows commonly increase feed intake naturally as outside temperatures fall, and that increase in intake will typically cover most of the extra energy needed to cover increased maintenance requirements. However, in extreme cold, dry matter intake does not increase at the same rate as metabolism, so animals are in a negative energy balance and temporarily shift energy use from productive purposes to heat production. Additionally, in extreme cold, dry matter digestibility can be lowered due to an increased rate of passage of feed through the digestive tract.

And so, while increases in feed intake can go a long way in maintaining core body temperature, providing extra feed is not enough; rations should also be formulated to meet increased cold-weather requirements. For instance, slight increases in energy inclusion (starch, sugar and/or fat) during this time can help to moderate energy losses due to lower intakes.

The research-proven feed technology Yea-Sacc® 1026 BAC can also be of help here. Supplementing Yea-Sacc 1026 BAC supports the entire GI tract, helping to condition the rumen for optimal efficiency while optimizing nutrient digestibility and minimizing the growth of undesirable organisms.

Keeping feed and water warm, safe and accessible

One issue that is not often considered during winter is the impact of cold temperatures on the feed that cows are consuming. Wet forages and byproducts can freeze during long stretches of very cold temperatures, resulting in chunks of feed and sorting at the bunk. This can lead to reduced intake. Also, when cows do consume frozen forages, they must work harder to warm up that TMR, and this requires additional energy. In winter, be careful to prevent feed from becoming wet and freezing. Feed bunks should also be monitored more frequently to ensure that feed is pushed up and that intake potential is being met with adequate feed delivery.

Frozen water or even excessively cold water can also cause problems. Cows can drink three to five gallons of water per minute, and the water supply needs to keep up with demand. Also, cows prefer water between 40° and 65°F; if the water gets much colder than 40°F, water intake and dry matter intake can both be reduced. To ensure safety and adequate water intake:

• Check regularly to ensure that waterers and water tanks are not frozen.
• Check tank heaters and waterer heating elements to ensure that they are in good working order and properly grounded, to minimize the chance of stray voltage.
• Check the area surrounding the waterer to ensure that it is free from ice, which may deter cows from visiting it because of the risk of slipping.

Prioritizing warm, dry housing

Of course, housing type and environment are a major factor during cold weather as well. For instance, a thick haircoat offers significant protection against the cold, but cows housed in tie stall barns will not have the same thick, long haircoats as cows in free-stall barns or cows with access to the outdoors during winter months. Whatever their housing situation or physical condition, however, cows should be kept warm and dry to help them maintain an adequate core body temperature.

When evaluating housing options in winter, be sure to keep wind chill in mind (Table 2). Protection from the wind is vital to keeping animals warm in cold temperatures.  

Table 2. Wind chill temperatures based on air temperature and wind speed

Conclusion

Providing increased nutrition and caloric intake, adequate access to water, and protection from environmental conditions during cold weather is crucial to maintaining your cows’ comfort, health and performance. Take steps now to be ready for the coldest part of winter in the U.S. For more details on protecting your cows and your productivity in winter, contact your local Alltech representative.

I want to learn more about nutrition for my dairy cattle.

To assess an operation’s mycotoxin risk, the mycotoxin type and concentration must first be determined. Mycotoxin testing types are generally classified into either rapid test methods or the more advanced laboratory-based detection. The primary rapid test methods include lateral flow devices (LFDs) and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISA). Of the lab-based methods used for mycotoxin analysis, high-performance liquid chromatography and ultra-performance liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry (UPLCMS/MS) are two of the most widely recognized.

The test method influences the risk assessment

As a greater number of mycotoxin types are analyzed, a better picture of the total mycotoxin risk can be determined. But what happens if a test only looks for a limited number of mycotoxins in the first place? Traditional mycotoxin guidelines that only consider one mycotoxin at a time are not always helpful for gaining a better understanding of the true risk of exposure for the animal.

This lack of information about the total risk is why the Alltech Mycotoxin Management team developed a tailored risk assessment method in 2012. Known as Risk Equivalent Quantity (REQ), this method provides feed and livestock producers with a unique way to identify the true risk associated with the presence of multiple mycotoxins in raw materials or finished feeds. Using the REQ value to compare the difference between assessing one mycotoxin, six mycotoxins or 54 mycotoxins, it is possible for producers to see how much they might be underestimating their risk if a test only analyzes the feed for a limited number of mycotoxins.

Mycotoxins in corn grain and the risk for monogastric animals

Based on samples analyzed by Alltech 37+ over a five-year period between 2018 and 2023 (Table 1), if aflatoxin (AF) was the only mycotoxin measured in the feed, the mycotoxin risk for sows would be underestimated by 96% (Figure 1). This makes sense, as aflatoxins were only detected in 9% of those samples, whereas other mycotoxins were detected more frequently.

In situations where the only option is to test for one mycotoxin, analyzing samples for deoxynivalenol (DON) is slightly better than analyzing for AF, as doing so led to an underestimation of 77% of the risk to sows. Still, there are many mycotoxins that are typically present in corn that are yet to be accounted for. When corn grain is analyzed for all six mycotoxins that can be detected through a rapid test method, the overall risk assessment is closer to what would be delivered by testing for an increased number of mycotoxins.

A similar underestimation of risk would occur for poultry. Using the same corn grain samples mentioned above, the risk assessment would be underestimated for broilers by 92% or 59% when the analysis only considered AF or DON, respectively (Figure 1), whereas an analysis of six mycotoxins reduces that risk underestimation to 21%. The presence of fusaric acid and other emerging mycotoxins would not be detected by rapid test methods, but many of the mycotoxins posing the greatest risk to pigs and poultry — such as DON, zearalenone and T-2/HT-2 — would be included.

Figure 1 – Differences in risk assessment in corn grain and corn silage (to broilers, sows and dairy cows)

Corn silage and dairy cows

Similar to grain, total mycotoxin risk assessment of corn silage can vary depending on the mycotoxins analyzed (Figure 1). In this case, assessment for only AF could result in a 99% underestimation of total risk for dairy cows, as AF was detected in only 9% of samples, with the majority of these containing very low concentrations (median <1 ppb). Sample analysis for only DON would be better — in this case, a 60% underestimation of total risk — but again, many key mycotoxin groups would not be detected. Assessment for 6 mycotoxins comes closer to the total risk assessed by the more advanced laboratory method, but this assessment in corn silage does not get as close to those results as the similar assessment in corn grain. This may be due to the higher occurrence and concentrations of mycotoxins such as fusaric acid, Penicillium mycotoxins and Aspergillus mycotoxins in corn silage.

Using readily available data, the comparisons in these examples were made using Alltech 37+ as the most comprehensive risk assessment method. This method identifies 54 individual mycotoxins. If other LMCS methods were used to identify an even greater number of mycotoxin types, the potential risk underestimation when only relying on rapid test methods would likely be amplified.

Mycotoxin testing plan

Although assessment of a limited number of mycotoxins by simpler analytical methods may not provide the full picture of an animal’s exposure to mycotoxins, these rapid test methods are still a valuable and accurate means of testing for mycotoxins. Many of these rapid test kits have been validated, with validation results published in scientific journals. The best mycotoxin management program is typically based on a combination of on-site rapid testing and laboratory-based analysis. Rapid tests can be used for routine testing where speed and cost are of concern, but periodic mycotoxin testing by laboratory-based methods can be used to learn about more complex mycotoxin mixtures.

Turning analysis into a control program

It is important to remember that at any point in time, the results of the average mycotoxin analysis can only show you a best-case scenario. In those cases, the mycotoxin levels will remain the same in the tested ingredient or ration — but they can continue to increase over time during storage. Equally, the total risk can be greater when multiple ingredient sources are brought together. Without knowing the full mycotoxin profile of a commodity or ration, developing a mycotoxin management program may be difficult. We also learned from the examples included above that analyzing samples for only one mycotoxin can lead to a significant underestimation of the total risk, even if the results for that particular mycotoxin type are accurate. Testing for a greater number of mycotoxins allows for the creation of a more accurate picture of the risk to the animal.

Determining the presence of multiple mycotoxins is important, but there may be a limit on the number of mycotoxins that can be assessed in a ration. More than 500 mycotoxin compounds have been identified, but it is sometimes not possible to routinely test for this number. Furthermore, it is still unknown how many of those mycotoxins impact animal performance and health. However, most mycotoxins are detrimental to animal performance, welfare and profitability.

To effectively combat the mycotoxin risk, a complete mycotoxin management program that focuses on identifying, quantifying and mitigating the risk level is needed. From a nutritional perspective, risk mitigation can be achieved directly within the animal through the use of Alltech’s Mycosorb® range of mycotoxin adsorbents, a family of products that contain yeast cell wall extract and can help to manage the collective mycotoxin challenge in the animal. Recently published meta-analyses with broilers and nursery and grow-finish pigs (Weaver et al., 2022; Weaver et al., 2023) reaffirm that when mycotoxins pose a problem, Mycosorb can play a role in improving performance, efficiency and livability. Mycosorb has even been linked to the improved environmental sustainability of broiler production.

To learn more about the tools and technologies offered by the Alltech Mycotoxin Management program, visit knowmycotoxins.com.

References are available on request.

This blog post is an updated version of an article published in All About Feed on October 23, 2023.

“Agriculture is a key opportunity and solution to the climate change issues we’re seeing today,” said Kevin Ogorzalek to the audience at Alltech ONE Dubai, the final stop of the Alltech ONE World Tour in 2023.

Ogorzalek is a partner and the sustainability supply chain leader at Concord Agriculture Partners, which works to build bridges between farmers and brands with the mission of achieving shared sustainability goals. Over the course of his career, he has gained extensive experience in the areas of sustainable production, land use, and carbon across global agri-commodities and in multiple sectors.

His closing plenary talk at Alltech ONE Dubai addressed how climate change is impacting agriculture, how governance and compliance are influencing the food sector, and how agri-businesses can benefit from taking actions to mitigate climate change risk through carbon market opportunities.

Key drivers of sustainability efforts for agri-business

In the past year alone, climate change has cost the U.S. $1 billion. Recent flooding and other extreme weather events have highlighted the urgency for agri-businesses to address climate-related risks.

Ogorzalek noted six key drivers of sustainability efforts for dairy and animal feed customers:

1. Supply chain consistency: The brittleness of food supply chains, which was particularly exposed during the COVID-19 pandemic, underscores the need for greater resilience and consistency.
2. Brand reputation: Brands are increasingly concerned about protecting their reputations, recognizing that many consumers now expect greater transparency in supply chains.
3. Regulatory frameworks: Growing regulatory pressures, including environmental, social and governance (ESG) requirements, are pushing agri-businesses to adopt sustainable practices.
4. Investor ESG requirements: Shareholders today require ESG reporting from their major investments.
5. Talent retention: Sustainable performance, including environmental responsibility, is becoming a key factor in retaining top talent within agri-business.
6. Value creation: Collaborative efforts between brands and supply chain partners can lead to improved overall performance and value chain enhancements.

Climate change impacts and risks

In his presentation at ONE Dubai, Ogorzalek introduced the concept of planetary boundaries by the Stockholm Resilience Centre, within which humanity can continue to develop and thrive for generations to come (image 1). Crossing boundaries increases the risk of generating large-scale abrupt or irreversible environmental changes, according to the scientists who proposed the nine planetary boundaries.

Image 1: The 2023 update to the planetary boundaries

Source: Azote for Stockholm Resilience Centre, based on analysis in Richardson et al 2023

From a business perspective, there are risks to operations and supply chains, such as weakened production capacity, resource scarcity, new stakeholder demands, potential reduced demands for goods and services, and increased capital and operational costs.

“If we focus specifically on the planetary boundary of our climate, which will be addressed by the global community over the next several weeks, we can see that as a result of greenhouse gas emissions, temperatures are rising to all-time highs,” Ogorzalek said. “This year will be the hottest year ever recorded. And since 2014, eight of the hottest years ever recorded will have occurred.

“Now, these emissions are the result of the entire human enterprise. Often, one specific sector or another is singled out as being a contributor, but it’s going to take an entire collaborative approach as a global society to address these issues and bring our emissions down to net-zero by 2050,” he continued.

Acknowledging the severe drought in Brazil and Argentina and the resulting challenges in the animal feed sector, Ogorzalek outlined the interconnected risks, from water scarcity to reduced production capacity. He emphasized the need for agri-business to be proactive in managing these risks, especially by avoiding deforested areas when sourcing feed.

Global initiatives to reduce climate change impacts

Ogorzalek discussed global initiatives, including the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and the Paris Agreement, and how they shape the commitments of the agri-business sector. The global commitment to ending deforestation and reducing methane emissions presents both challenges and opportunities for the dairy and animal feed industries.

“World leaders signed the Global Methane Pledge, which will reduce methane by 2030, a key opportunity for the dairy sector especially,” Ogorzalek said, adding that at COP28, “there will be specific discussions on Article 6 of the Paris Agreement, which is the overarching governing framework trading carbon credits.”

A map created by the World Bank in 2023 indicates that carbon markets are increasing in scope and scale, and also in regulations.

Carbon pricing dashboard | Up-to-date overview of carbon pricing initiatives

Summary map of regional, national and subnational carbon pricing initiatives

Carbon markets are trading systems in which carbon credits are sold and bought. Compliance markets are created as a result of any national, regional and/or international policy or regulatory requirement. Voluntary carbon markets – national and international – refer to the issuance, buying and selling of carbon credits, on a voluntary basis.

International carbon markets can play a key role in reducing global greenhouse gas emissions cost-effectively, according to the European Commission.

Many countries and jurisdictions are developing compliance carbon markets and levying taxes to bring down and contribute to each country’s individual, nationally determined contribution to the Paris Agreement.

In addition, the European Commission, the United States Securities and Exchange Commission, and the California Air Resources Board will all have regulations requiring businesses that operate within their jurisdictions to report on emissions, both of their own operations and of their supply chains.

Voluntary carbon market opportunities for agri-business

Ogorzalek also delved into the evolving landscape of voluntary carbon markets, noting the increasing importance of carbon credits. He highlighted the voluntary carbon market’s potential for agri-businesses to play a significant role in reducing methane, citing examples of over 6,000 companies committing to ending deforestation and engaging in carbon offsetting.

“There is a variety of quality in the carbon markets. There is also a lack of supply,” Ogorzalek said. “The Wall Street Journal is projecting that by 2030, 2 gigatons of carbon credits will be needed. However, based on current business practices, there will be only 700 million tons available. A significant portion of this gap can be made up by agri-business.” 

Significant voluntary market activities are happening in the Middle East:

• UAE’s Blue Carbon has arranged memorandums of understanding (MOUs) with Liberia, Kenya, Tanzania, Zambia and Zimbabwe to purchase carbon rights in forests.
• 16 Saudi firms purchased 2.2 million MT of CO2 credits in Nairobi in June 2023.
• Saudi Arabia will launch its Greenhouse Gas Crediting and Offsetting Mechanism (GCOM) in 2024.
• ACX Ltd, based in Abu Dhabi, is the first fully regulated carbon exchange connected to the voluntary carbon market.

Ogorzalek outlined key opportunities for the dairy and animal feed sectors:

1. Efficiency and value creation: Driving efficiency in production while partnering with brands to improve environmental outcomes can create value for agri-businesses.
2. Transparency and innovation: Transparency in the supply chain, coupled with innovation in key areas such as feed sourcing, positions agri-businesses to be part of the solution.
3. Collaboration with banks and brands: Working with financial institutions and brands on pricing and financing solutions aligns with the growing demand for sustainable practices.
4. Feed additives for methane reduction: Addressing methane emissions, a global priority, through the use of feed additives offers a tangible way for the animal agri-business sector to contribute positively.

The call to action

Ogorzalek concluded by challenging regional leaders in the agri-business sector to adopt practices that not only feed the world affordably but also create value while operating within safe planetary boundaries. His presentation underscored the urgency of collectively addressing climate change, emphasizing that the actions taken today will shape the future of agriculture and the planet.

In essence, Ogorzalek’s insightful talk serves as a call for the agri-business sector to engage proactively in sustainable practices, leverage emerging opportunities, and play a pivotal role in mitigating the impacts of climate change on global food systems.

The United Arab Emirates (UAE) is widely known for its petroleum reserves and the wealth they inject into the country’s economy — but even in an oil-dominated economy in a desert climate, agriculture plays a major role.

“Our region isn’t an agricultural powerhouse, but we have to build food systems to be able to be more resilient to ‘black-swan events,’” said Sheikh Dr. Majid Al Qassimi in a presentation at Alltech ONE Dubai — the most recent stop of the Alltech ONE World Tour — in late November.

His presentation explored the numerous ways the UAE is actively working to make its food and agriculture systems more sustainable, equitable and accessible. This topic was particularly relevant in light of the recent 2023 United Nations Climate Change Conference, also known as COP28, which was hosted by the UAE days after Alltech ONE Dubai.

“We are now in the spotlight,” Sheikh Dr. Al Qassimi said. “This year, our legacy as the UAE is to bring food systems as a theme to COP.”

Sheikh Dr. Al Qassimi is uniquely qualified to speak on the topics of food systems, agriculture and technology as the founding partner of Soma Mater, which promotes radical transparency across the food system in the UAE and works to facilitate conversations, empower the country’s producers, support sustainable importers and keep policymakers informed. Previously, he served in the UAE’s Ministry of Climate Change and Environment.

“What we do is help companies like yourselves shorten the critical path to making changes,” he said to the producers and industry representatives in attendance.

Thanks to his impressive career, he has seen firsthand how the UAE is working to improve its food and agriculture sectors.

“We’re fortunate to have a government that’s so proactive,” he said. “The challenge here is: How do we scale [the initiatives] the government has led and, ultimately, how do we get the industry to support them?”

Change from the top down: Federal ag agencies in the UAE

The United Arab Emirates formed in 1971 when seven separate emirates, or states, came together as one federation. Its 10 million people, like all people, depend on properly working agri-food systems for their health and well-being, and the government promotes sustainability, accessibility and ag-tech at all levels. While each emirate has its own authorities and offices, the UAE’s Ministry of Climate Change and Environment oversees agriculture as well, working to enhance food security while finding solutions to climate change.

“This is part of a 50-year legacy where food has been moving into a larger arena,” Sheikh Dr. Al Qassimi added. “What we [at Soma Mater] have started doing is helping the industry be in the room with the policymakers.”

Sustainable food production in the UAE

Sustainability is a hot topic across the agriculture industry due to its impact on both the environment and on a production’s bottom line, and it promises to become even more important in the future.

“We’re going to have consumers that want to see sustainability in all their products,” said Sheikh Dr. Al Qassimi. “And that’s a challenge for producers, for manufacturers, for processors. How do you communicate sustainability to the end user through your value chain?

“And have you started the work? Because in 10 or 20 years, there will be clients who will say, ‘I can’t really work with you because I can’t get the metrics I need to prove that sustainability to my customer. So, we’re going to either have to go with somebody else or you’re going to have to step up.’”

In line with its food security strategy, and as part of its commitment to the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), the UAE is working to reduce food waste by 50% by 2030. Both those in the government and on the ground know how imperative these efforts are for the future of the emirates and the planet.

“The industry is very organized [around this issue], and we’re trying to figure out how we get more efficient — not only for our bottom line but for the precious resources we work with in the natural world,” Sheikh Dr. Al Qassimi said.  

One strategy being employed is the National Food Loss and Waste Initiative (ne’ma). Launched in 2022, this initiative encourages both public- and private-sector entities to promote responsible consumption.

“The ne’ma food waste initiative is a roadmap for the country on how we ensure that consumers are valuing what you are producing rather than buying it and throwing it away,” Sheikh Dr. Al Qassimi said. “[This is] a step back from this hyper-commoditization of products [to ensure that] any waste finds its way back into the food system rather than a landfill.”

While these efforts are moving the needle within the UAE, collaboration across borders is imperative as well. At COP26, the emirates launched a joint initiative with the U.S., known as the Agriculture Innovation Mission for Climate, or AIM. Through AIM, these two countries are addressing climate change and global hunger by boosting investments in climate-smart agriculture and food-systems innovation.

“AIM has [brought together] one of the largest ag producers in the world [the U.S.] and what, seemingly, is a small country with a very limited capability,” said Sheikh Dr. Al Qassimi. “This program was a way to raise this issue to the world and to say, ‘The agriculture industry globally will look like this if we don’t tackle [these issues].’”

Making food security a reality — and a priority

Food safety is another important issue in the UAE, for both the government and the industry.

“More and more, this region has had food security pushed up in its [list of] priorities,” said Sheikh Dr. Al Qassimi.

To address food security for all people, the UAE established the 1 Billion Meals initiative in 2020. Through this program, institutions, companies, entrepreneurs and individuals can donate meals to low-income families and other vulnerable groups around the world.

“The 1 Billion Meals initiative addresses waste so that this food that you’re all working so hard to produce doesn’t go into the landfill and does go to hungry mouths,” said Sheikh Dr. Al Qassimi. “It’s also addressing a matter of distribution — making sure that people can get to the food and the food can get to them — as one of the major definitions for food security is really accessibility.”

The Food Security Alliance is essential as well, ensuring through strategic partnerships and foreign investments the continuity of commodity supplies during crises. It includes large agricultural producers, government entities and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) from both the UAE and elsewhere in the Middle East.

“The whole region can do a lot together; it doesn’t have to be country by country,” Sheikh Dr. Al Qassimi said. “Ultimately, when you have enough players in the room together, that’s when you can create real impact. And the Food Security Alliance does this.”

Utilizing innovation and technology for the good of the people

Perhaps more so than any other country in the Middle East, the UAE is known as a center for innovation and technology; consider, for instance, the towering Burj Khalifa, an engineering feat admired the world over.

“Technology is a critical component of how we do business in this part of the world, and innovation is really the [biggest] opportunity here,” Sheikh Dr. Al Qassimi said.

To capitalize on these strengths, the UAE is now home to several ag-tech and food parks, which “bring the brightest ideas and the industry together under one roof to research and innovate,” said Sheikh Dr. Al Qassimi.

Some of the most notable ag-tech and food parks include:

• Dubai’s Food Tech Valley, an economic zone that unites the complete food and agriculture sectors.
• ADQ’s AgTech Park in Al Ain, an ecosystem that harnesses technology to create a controlled environment that advances the UAE’s ability to grow fresh foods year-round.
• Sharjah Food Park, a sector of the Hamriyah Free Zone Authority that enables businesses to expand their food production, storage and packaging capacities.
• Sharjah Research Technology and Innovation Park, which promotes research, technology and innovation in healthcare, energy, the environment, food security and technology.

Sheikh Dr. Al Qassimi hopes that these parks will give more producers and technologists a space to collaborate on some of the country’s greatest challenges.

“It’s really up to the industry to step up and say, ‘I want to engage, I want to learn — and also, I have problems that need to be solved,’” he said. “We’ve learned in the industry that the researchers, the people who are innovating in-country, aren’t getting enough face-to-face time with the industry, and we’re looking to facilitate that more.”

In closing his presentation at Alltech ONE Dubai, Sheikh Dr. Al Qassimi acknowledged that while governments are actively working to address agriculture’s greatest challenges, the most impactful changes will be made by the people on the ground.

“Government bodies [may] deliver policy, but ultimately, if we don’t have the industry aligned with this, then this will just be a lot of wasted effort,” he said. “So, I’d leave you with this: If you’re here today, it means you want to learn. But if you meet after this, it means you’re ready to do the work.”

World’s leaders to focus on food systems and agriculture at upcoming COP28 in Dubai

The role of food systems and agriculture in climate action is taking center stage at this year’s United Nations Climate Change Conference, known as COP28, which kicks off Nov. 30 in Dubai.

COP convenes country leaders each year to discuss and coordinate global efforts to address climate change. Since COP21 in 2015, the conference has focused heavily on how to implement the Paris Agreement, which aims to limit the rise in the Earth’s temperature and prevent the potentially disastrous effects of global warming.

This year, the organizers of COP28 have added a food-systems focus to the agenda, urging global governments to sign a declaration of intent to integrate food systems and agriculture into their national climate agendas. An initiative encouraging the widespread adoption of regenerative agriculture has also been launched.

Farmers, ranchers and producers have been focused for many years on agriculture’s role in feeding the world and meeting its climate change goals. They recognize the vital importance of creating healthy, sustainable food systems, a goal that is disrupted by the climate crisis.

Indeed, agriculture stands at the forefront of solutions to nourish the world and nurture the planet.

Three things to know

• COP28, set for Nov. 30–Dec. 12 in Dubai, will explore a Food Systems and Agriculture agenda.

• It will call on global leaders to sign a declaration that aligns national food systems and agriculture strategies with climate efforts.

• Agriculture is vital to feeding the world and meeting its climate change goals. It has the capability to reduce its own emissions and capture and sequester emissions released by other industries

“There is no other industry that plays such a fundamental role in terms of not only producing food, but also preserving our planet,” said Dr. Mark Lyons, president and CEO of Alltech. “If we produce our food in the right way, we can deliver on some of those big objectives of having the right nutrition, of creating new economic opportunities, and protecting and renewing our natural resources.”

Climate change cannot be solved without agriculture, and agriculture cannot thrive without tackling climate change. We must meet the needs of the present without compromising the needs of the future.

The world needs the nourishment of protein-rich meat, milk, eggs and seafood and crops that are grown in healthy soil. At the same time, we must work to minimize any harmful effects of agricultural practices on the environment. This can be accomplished by improving the health of animals and the soil, maximizing the quality of animal feed, increasing the efficiency of the farm and reinvesting in innovation.

The power of carbon sequestration

While agriculture currently contributes about a quarter of global GHG emissions, it possesses the unique capability to reduce its own emissions and capture and sequester emissions released by other industries. This makes agriculture a powerful tool in the fight against climate change.

A study published in PLOS Climate earlier this year suggested that agriculture could be carbon-negative by 2050. Advancements in agricultural technology and management have the potential to not only slow down the growth of greenhouse gas emissions from the global food system but actually achieve net negative emissions, the study’s authors said.

“Our study recognizes the food system as one of the most powerful weapons in the battle against global climate change,” said co-lead author Professor Benjamin Houlton, dean of the College of Agriculture and Life Sciences at Cornell University. “We need to move beyond silver-bullet thinking and rapidly test, verify and scale local solutions by leveraging market-based incentives.”

Focusing on soil health, leading-edge nutrition and pasture management practices, and the use of climate-smart technologies will allow the agriculture industry to capture more carbon each year.

Alltech has been studying the agriculture industry’s ability to sequester carbon through a research alliance based at the 10,000-acre Buck Island Ranch in Lake Placid, Florida. The alliance brings together Alltech’s scientists with ecologists and agriculture experts to understand the impact cattle production has on an ecosystem.

Researchers at Buck Island have learned that grazing ruminant animals on land actually benefits the environment and improves carbon cycling, which refers to the movement of carbon through various reservoirs on Earth — the atmosphere, soil and water, for example. The team is measuring the carbon emissions of beef production and evaluating the effects of pasture management, grazing strategies, mineral supplementation and other nutritional strategies.

The results have confirmed that carbon-neutral — and even net-positive — beef production is possible at Buck Island, and that same potential likely extends to other environments around the world.

“What Buck Island shows us is that with animals on the land, we capture more carbon than without them,” said Dr. Lyons. “That is profoundly powerful.”

Agricultural technologies and practices required to increase carbon capture could be “regionally down-scaled according to local culture, economics, technology readiness and agricultural management capacities,” the PLOS Climate study concluded. “This makes agriculture a unique economic sector and reiterates that it should be a key focus when discussing climate targets.”

The potential to capture carbon in the soil presents a significant opportunity for the agri-food community to embrace our critical role in combatting climate change while simultaneously improving soil health, boosting crop yields and promoting biodiversity.

“The biggest carbon sink that we can have is our land,” Dr. Lyons said. “Agriculture is the answer.”

As winter approaches and pasture availability declines, most horse owners start thinking about hay. Knowing how much hay your horse may need per day, or how to spot good hay, can be tricky if you are less experienced.

So, how do you plan your winter hay purchase?

First, know how much hay you will need to provide.

Hay can be expensive, so it is important to supply an adequate amount without wasting it. And from a health perspective, the goal is to meet fiber and foraging needs, and nutrient requirements, without over- or under-supplying.

Horses typically eat 2 to 2.5% of their body weight on a dry matter basis. Hay is typically around 90% dry matter, so an average-sized adult horse, weighing 1100 lb., should consume 24 to 30 lb. of hay over a 24-hour period. Keep in mind that the amount of grain you offer will replace some of this hay. The very minimum forage offered for a horse this size should be about 1.25% of body weight on a dry matter basis, or 15 lb. Feeding below this amount may cause harm to gastrointestinal health (e.g., gastric ulcers) and has been associated with behaviors such as chewing wood and eating bedding.

Choose the right hay for your horse.

Physical quality characteristics include the stem-to-leaf ratio (how “stemmy” it is) and the presence of seedheads (indicators of maturity), weeds, and foreign objects, as well as dustiness and mold. Quality can also be measured based on nutritional composition. Having a nutritional evaluation of the hay you plan to purchase is very helpful.

Often, hay can provide almost all the nutrients that a mature horse may need. However, not all horses benefit from being fed the most nutritious hay, so consider what the horse is used for, any health issues the horse may have, and winter management practice as you make your hay-purchasing decisions. For example, an overweight horse may benefit from a more mature hay that provides fewer calories but can be fed in a sufficient quantity to keep the gastrointestinal tract healthy. In contrast, a growing horse will consume a smaller amount of hay, so a higher nutritional quality is needed, with calcium, phosphorus, and protein content being particularly important.

Keep in mind the approximate length of winter in your area.

The longer your winter, the more hay you will need. Keep some on hand to transition to spring pasture. Hay intake may increase temporarily when the temperature drops particularly low, since fermentation of hay in the hindgut helps to regulate body temperature. Provide extra hay during a cold spell.

Choose storage and feeding methods with care to avoid problems with spoilage and wastage.

Ideally, store hay in a dry barn to prevent spoilage. When horses are fed outside, the use of a hay feeder or rack reduces wastage. While round bales are a popular choice, up to 40% is wasted when they are not managed properly and used with a bale feeder. In stalls, the preferred method of feeding hay is on the ground, allowing for a more natural grazing head position. However, some owners prefer using slow-feeder type hay nets, more closely mimicking continuous grazing. This is particularly beneficial for overweight horses fed a limited amount of hay. A large feed tub for hay can also be effective in stalls. Management style preference and horse preference will determine what works best.

If you are completely new to purchasing hay, seek expert advice to learn hay-buying tips, and find good suppliers local to your area. In the U.S., your local extension office will be of great help.

I want to learn more about nutrition for my horses.

Our swine industry is one of constant improvement, and with those improvements come unforeseen consequences. One exciting trend has been the continual increase year after year in total pigs born per litter. However, as litter sizes continue to increase, so too does the time it takes the sow to complete the farrowing process. This can increase the incidence of stillborn pigs and limit sow productivity.

One strategy to mitigate this is the use of dietary fiber or reduced feeding intervals during the periparturient period, but this is not always possible. More opportunities certainly exist to optimize the number of live-born piglets in these increasing litter numbers, improving sow throughput.

Our group recently launched Triad®, which was developed to aid the farrowing process. Triad is a unique blend of ingredients encapsulated in an aromatic fat matrix, designed to be fed to the sow prior to farrowing. By applying proven concepts from the dairy and poultry industries, three days of Triad supplementation induces metabolic changes, which allow the sow to efficiently utilize calcium from her body reserves during the farrowing process. In addition, Triad works in complement to reduced feeding intervals to accomplish a final goal of reducing farrowing duration, with fewer stillborn and hypoxic pigs delivered as a result.

We have completed three trials^1,2,3 utilizing Triad in this manner and are excited to have more trials in progress, further demonstrating the benefits of implementing Triad into your pre-farrow protocol. Across our trials, we found a consistent reduction in stillborn incidence, at 0.33 fewer stillborns per farrowing. Additionally, our research¹ has demonstrated a reduction of 1.4 hours of farrowing duration in the treated sows, compared to sows fed once daily. Further research² has demonstrated that stillborn incidence can be reduced further in sows fed twice per day while supplemented with Triad.

In another of our trials³, we successfully demonstrated a reduction in urine pH in sows treated with Triad prior to farrowing. Urine pH can be an effective on-farm measurement to evaluate the success of protocol implementation. We also found that urine bacterial counts were lessened in sows fed Triad, compared to the control group.

Clearly, there is an excellent opportunity to achieve financial gain with Triad supplementation.

Triad can be fed either as a top-dress or within complete feed prior to farrowing. The response is dose dependent, and we have found that feeding 25 grams per meal once per day, for at least three days pre-farrowing, delivers the most consistent and economic results. At $0.33 per feeding, Triad offers a significant returnFor example, feeding the product as a top-dress for three days, we expect a 0.33-piglet advantage; thus, the return on investment (ROI) per treated sow ranges from $6 to $13, considering a range of $20 to $40 value per weaned pig, respectively (Figure 1).

Amid the intricate choreography of farrowing, Triad offers a strategic advantage for your operation. The impact of feeding Triad extends beyond singular farrowing events; it contributes to the broader narrative of sustainable pig farming. By adopting Triad, you empower your operation with a tool that aligns with the ethos of progress: healthier sows, thriving piglets, and a resilient swine industry poised for excellence.

¹Peppmier et al. J. Anim. Sci. 2022.

²Bents and Galloway. AASV. 2022.

³Bents and Soto. Leman conference. 2023.

Authors: Dr. Andrew Bents and Dr. Jose Soto

I want to learn more about nutrition for my pig herd. 

In the cow-calf production system, forage is the primary source of feed and plays a significant role in cattle health and productivity; however, forage digestion is limited by the interaction of different fiber components. Nevertheless, fiber contributes a major source of energy, regulates feed intake, and stimulates chewing, salivation and gut motility (Adesogan et al., 2019). Fiber is digested by rumen microbial populations that are responsible for breaking down digestible fiber, hemicellulose and cellulose, then converting those to energy. However, fiber digestion can be limited by the associations between hemicellulose, cellulose, lignin, and other acids in the plant cell wall.

Additionally, forage type, quality and length can have an impact on fiber digestibility, depending on the amounts of cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin the plant contains. Different approaches can be taken to ensure that cattle are digesting the maximum amount of forage.

Providing a balanced diet

Understanding how forage matures is fundamental in making sure a balanced diet is provided year-round. Young, growing forages will typically provide enough protein and energy and require no protein supplementation. As the forage matures, however, its nutrient content and digestibility decline. This decline is associated with an increase in lignin, resulting in less digestible fiber available for use. Reduced fiber digestion will reduce feed intake, rumen microbial function and overall digestion, making less energy available to the cow. However, providing the correct amount of protein, an essential nutrient, will help to optimize rumen microbial function and increase fiber digestion.

Trace mineral sources have also been demonstrated to have an impact on rumen fermentation. Research has revealed that steers with sulfate sources of trace minerals added to their diets had reduced fiber digestibility and overall dry matter digestibility from their diets when compared to steers supplemented with complexed trace minerals (Guimaraes et al., 2022). Alltech’s Bioplex® offers proteinate trace minerals, a specific type of complexed trace minerals, as an optimal alternative to sulfate-sourced trace minerals. In a study comparing these two types of minerals, the authors suggested that rumen bacteria that ferment carbohydrates use more Bioplex trace minerals, at a faster rate, than sulfate-sourced trace minerals, thus maximizing rumen fermentation (Pino and Heinrichs, 2016).

Mechanical processing

The process of forage digestion starts with cattle chewing and breaking down forage. The act of chewing reduces forage particle size, resulting in a greater inside surface area for rumen microbes to attach to, which is important because the bacteria’s digestion process works from the inside out. Cattle further reduce forage particle size by chewing their cud, a process of regurgitating a bolus of forage and chewing it again; however, there is an energy cost associated with the process.

Chopping forage prior to feeding it is a cost-effective way for producers to increase fiber digestion. This process decreases the amount of time cattle spend chewing their cud, thus helping to increase feed intake. Producers need to be aware, though, that hay chopped too finely may have negative effects on rumen health. Therefore, the recommended chop length is no smaller than ½ inch. In situations where hay is fed on the ground, a longer chop length can be used to minimize waste.

Natural feed additives

Natural feed additives, including live yeast cultures and yeast fermentation products, have been around for several years and have been shown to have positive effects on animal digestion, health and performance. Yea-Sacc® 1026 is a live yeast culture by Alltech that has demonstrated the ability to stimulate the growth of rumen bacteria, resulting in a positive effect on feed intake, nutrient availability and rumen pH. More specifically, Yea-Sacc 1026 stimulates the growth of fiber-digesting bacteria. This leads to a more efficient breakdown of fiber in the rumen and an increase in the amount of nutrients available to the cow.

Fibrolytic enzymes are other feed additives that have shown positive results at improving fiber digestion. Based on fermentation extracts from fungal or bacterial sources, these enzymes provide high activity that breaks down cellulose and hemicellulose more efficiently (Mendoza et al., 2014). Fibrozyme®, a fibrolytic enzyme by Alltech, has been shown to support better fiber digestion and feed efficiency by promoting early digestion rates of fiber.

Summary

A producer can improve fiber digestion in many ways. It is important to investigate which method will work best for a particular operation to maximize animal health, productivity and profitability.

References are available upon request. 

I want to learn more about beef nutrition. 

New research reaffirms Alltech’s long-standing findings that holistic control of resistant pathogens is key to combating AMR

In the century since antibiotics were invented, they have saved millions of lives. In recent years, though, these miracle medicines — along with antivirals and antifungals — have been rendered increasingly ineffective as microorganisms have evolved to resist them. This phenomenon is known as antimicrobial resistance (AMR).

To a certain extent, AMR happens naturally as microorganisms evolve. However, the speed and seriousness of the resistance seen in recent decades has made it clear that the process is being dangerously accelerated, likely due to the overuse and misuse of antibiotics among both humans and animals. In particular, decades of widespread antibiotic use in livestock production — not only to prevent health problems but to promote faster growth — has given harmful pathogens plenty of opportunities to develop resistance.

Because of AMR, infections once readily treatable are becoming persistent and even life-threatening. In 2019, according to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United States, nearly 5 million human deaths worldwide were associated with bacterial AMR, of which 1.3 million were directly attributable to it. AMR is also causing serious damage in the global agri-food sector, with economic losses and drops in livestock production resulting in growing poverty, hunger and malnutrition. 

Antibiotic removal not a “reset button”

When the dire implications of rising AMR first became evident, many scientists recommended the obvious solution: the reduction or elimination of antibiotics whenever possible.

But was this the only solution, or even the best solution?

Some researchers, including those at Alltech, decided to dig deeper.

First, they had to understand the extent of the problem. In an early study on the subject, in 1986, a University of Kentucky team — led by Dr. Karl Dawson, who later spent over 20 years as a research leader at Alltech and now serves as the company’s scientific advisor — studied multiple swine herds and found that antibiotic-resistant microflora that had developed from the use of antibiotics prior to 1972 were present in all of them. While the levels of AMR corresponded somewhat with the levels of antibiotic use in each herd, Dr. Dawson’s team found that some resistant microorganisms were present even in a herd where antibiotics had never been used at all. They also observed that resistance values stayed elevated even after antibiotics were discontinued in the herds. These findings were valuable in assessing the extent of the problem and the spread of AMR.

More recent research, by Dr. Richard Murphy’s team at the Alltech European Bioscience Centre, has expanded on these findings, confirming that while antibiotic reduction or discontinuation can be valuable in preventing future resistance, it does not reverse resistance that has already occurred. Most of the resistant microorganisms studied by Dr. Murphy’s team — including the pathogens of highest concern for human health, such as E. coli, Salmonella and Campylobacter — simply did not become sensitive to antibiotics again, even after those antibiotics had been reduced or eliminated for some time.

The science was clear: The removal of antibiotics is not an automatic “reset button” for resistant bacteria.

Support grows for new strategies

As research continues worldwide, the tide is turning toward this point of view, with solutions being developed that approach the problem holistically.

Most recently, a team at the University of Oxford in the U.K. has released findings that align with Alltech’s. An Oct. 6 article by Phys.org quotes Professor Tim Walsh, director of biology at the Ineos Oxford Institute and co-author of the paper: “Simply put, it is not enough to reduce antibiotic consumption in order to effectively combat antibiotic resistance. We need urgent and innovative approaches to combat antibiotic resistance, and strategies to protect our last-resort antibiotics for when we need them most.”

Dr. Murphy expects more researchers to publish studies with similar conclusions over the next 12 to 18 months. Slowly, the world is coming around to a better understanding of the limits of antibiotic reduction and elimination in addressing the AMR challenge.

Enhancing gut health through microbial diversity

But if removing antibiotics won’t work to gain back the ground we’ve lost to AMR, what will? And how can the agri-food community find ways to support animal health without antibiotic intervention?

Over more than four decades at the forefront of agricultural science, Alltech has built a wide and effective range of nutritional solutions by harnessing the power of yeast fermentation. In exploring whether this approach can be applied to the problem of AMR, Alltech researchers have successfully demonstrated the potential of using mannan-rich fraction (MRF), isolated from cell walls of Saccharomyces yeast, in controlling pathogens, including their resistant forms.

MRF stands out for its ability to enhance gut health by increasing microbial diversity. This diversity is crucial because it helps the gut self-regulate, making it more resilient when pathogens are encountered. As a result, pathogens are less likely to colonize the gastrointestinal tract and cause harm. Additionally, MRF influences the metabolism of pathogens such as E. coli, leading to an increase in those pathogens’ sensitivity to antibiotics.

In essence, it turns out that MRF works in three complementary ways:

• making antibiotics less necessary
• boosting their efficiency when they are needed
• decreasing the prevalence of resistant bacteria

But MRF, however effective, is only one tool in the toolbox of a widely effective, resilient answer to the AMR issue. Others include expertly crafted feed enzymes, functional nutrients, probiotics, organic minerals, and other yeast cell wall derivatives, such as mannan oligosaccharides (MOS).

Putting these solutions into practice

Equally important to the efficiency of these solutions is how and when they are administered. The Alltech path to antibiotic-free production begins with its innovative Seed, Feed, Weed program, which:

• Seeds the animal’s gut with probiotic bacteria, enhancing the body’s natural ability to fight off pathogens such as Salmonella or Campylobacter before they can cause problems
• Feeds the helpful bacteria with a safe organic acid that reduces pH within the gut, making it still less favorable for the growth of pathogens
• Weeds out harmful bacteria through the administration of yeast MRF prebiotics, even after those bacteria are well established in the gut

“If you can expand the richness and the diversity of the gut microflora, that enables the GI tract to self-police,” Dr. Murphy says. “You tend to get greater resistance to pathogen colonization of the GI tract.” 

Once a thriving, healthy microbiome has been established, the animal has a foundation for health that includes optimized nutritional uptake and a stronger immune system. These qualities fill the needs for growth and disease control that antibiotics used to fill, but in a more natural and sustainable way.

The power of a holistic approach

The critical takeaway is that addressing AMR requires a multifaceted approach. As Dr. Murphy says, there is no “silver bullet.” While reducing unnecessary antibiotic use is an essential step, pathogen-control strategies must extend beyond mere antibiotic restrictions to encompass measures that target both the pathogens and their resistant variants.

By adopting innovative solutions like MRF and focusing on truly holistic pathogen control, the world can take substantial steps toward reducing the prevalence of resistant bacteria and safeguarding public health on a global scale.

Related content

Planet of Plenty™ fact page — Reducing antibiotic and antimicrobial resistance

Podcast — Antimicrobial Resistance: What You Need to Know

Blog — Reducing disease without increased antimicrobial resistance

Blog — FAO raises awareness to deadly consequences of antimicrobial resistance